Friday, September 30, 2011
Living Is the Greatest Revolution
Mind is held in a pattern; its very existence is the frame within which it works and moves. The pattern is of the past or the future, it is despair and hope, confusion and Utopia, the what has been and the what should be. With this we are all familiar. You want to break the old pattern and substitute a 'new' one, the new being the modified old. …You want to produce a new world. It is impossible. You may deceive yourself and others, but unless the old pattern is broken completely there cannot be a radical transformation. You may play around with it, but you are not the hope of the world. The breaking of the pattern, both the old and the so-called new, is of the utmost importance if order is to come out of this chaos. That is why it is essential to understand the ways of the mind. Is it possible for the mind to be without a pattern, to be free of this backward and forward swing of desire? It is definitely possible. Such action is living in the now. To live is to be without hope, without the care of tomorrow; it is not hopelessness or indifference. But we are not living, we are always pursuing death, the past or the future. Living is the greatest revolution. Living has no pattern, but death has: the past or the future, the what has been or the Utopia. You are living for the Utopia, and so you are inviting death and not life. - The Book of Life
Inward Revolution
What is true can only be found from moment to moment, it is not a continuity, but the mind which wants to discover it, being itself the product of time, can only function in the field of time; therefore it is incapable of finding what is true. To know the mind, the mind must know itself, for there is no 'I' apart from the mind. There are no qualities separate from the mind, just as the qualities of the diamond are not separate from the diamond itself. To understand the mind you cannot interpret it according to somebody else's idea, but you must observe how your own total mind works. When you know the whole process of it, how it reasons, its desires, motives, ambitions, pursuits, its envy, greed and fear; then the mind can go beyond itself, and when it does there is the discovery of something totally new. That quality of newness gives an extraordinary passion, a tremendous enthusiasm which brings about a deep inward revolution: and it is this inward revolution which alone can transform the world not any political or economic system. - J. Krishnamurti, The Book of Life
There Is Only Consciousness
There is in fact only one state, not two states such as the conscious and the unconscious there is only a state of being, which is consciousness, though you may divide it as the conscious and the unconscious. But that consciousness is always of the past, never of the present; you are conscious only of things that are over. You are conscious of what I am trying to convey the second afterwards, are you not? You understand it a moment later. You are never conscious or aware of the now. Watch your own hearts and minds and you will see that consciousness is functioning between the past and the future and that the present is merely a passage of the past to the future.If you watch your own mind at work, you will see that the movement to the past and to the future is a process in which the present is not. Either the past is a means of escape from the present, which may be unpleasant, or the future is a hope away from the present. So the mind is occupied with the past or with the future and sloughs off the present. It either condemns and rejects the fact or accepts and identifies itself with the fact. Such a mind is obviously not capable of seeing any fact as a fact. That is our state of consciousness, which is conditioned by the past and our thought, is the conditioned response to the challenge of a fact; the more you respond according to the conditioning of belief, of the past, the more there is strengthening of the past.That strengthening of the past is obviously the continuity of itself, which it calls the future. So that is the state of our mind, of our consciousness;a pendulum swinging backwards and forwards between the past and the future. - J. Krishnamurti, The Book of Life
Thursday, September 29, 2011
Sex role orientation and its relationship to the development of identity and moral thought
Skoe, E. E. (1995). Sex role orientation and its relationship to the development of identity and moral thought. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 36, 235-245.
For women, identity was negatively related to femininity and positively related to androgyny. Also, high levels of care-based moral reasoning, i.e., a balanced concern for the welfare of self and others, was related to androgyny for women. There were no significant findings for men. No significant relationships were found between sex role orientation and justice-based moral reasoning. Thus, the results suggested that for women in particular, relinquishing the stereotyped sex role definition and becoming more androgynous is important for their ego identity as well as care-based moral development.
A measure of care-based morality and its relation to ego identity
identity development was positively related to care-oriented moral reasoning (Skoe & Marcia, 1991).
Skoe, E. E., & Marcia, J. E. (1991). A measure of care-based morality and its relation to ego identity. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 37, 289-304.
A care-based measure of levels of moral thought, based on C. Gilligan's (1982) theorizing, was developed to investigate the relationship between moral reasoning and identity in women. Ss were 86 female students, aged 17–26 yrs. Interrater reliabilities for the new ethic of care interview measure (ECI), using 3 independent raters, ranged from r = .78 to r = .96, and kappas ranging from .63 to .94 were obtained. Scores on the ECI were found to increase with age as predicted. Also, as hypothesized, women high on the ECI were higher in identity status than were women low on the ECI. One conclusion is that women's development of moral reasoning and concept of self are intricately linked.
A measure of moral reasoning based on a care ethic was developed. Moral thought that is based on care may more accurately reflect female development than the traditional justice-based morality. The relationship between the measure and women's ego identity was investigated. It is concluded that women's development of moral reasoning and concept of self are intricately linked.
Skoe, E. E., & Marcia, J. E. (1991). A measure of care-based morality and its relation to ego identity. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 37, 289-304.
A care-based measure of levels of moral thought, based on C. Gilligan's (1982) theorizing, was developed to investigate the relationship between moral reasoning and identity in women. Ss were 86 female students, aged 17–26 yrs. Interrater reliabilities for the new ethic of care interview measure (ECI), using 3 independent raters, ranged from r = .78 to r = .96, and kappas ranging from .63 to .94 were obtained. Scores on the ECI were found to increase with age as predicted. Also, as hypothesized, women high on the ECI were higher in identity status than were women low on the ECI. One conclusion is that women's development of moral reasoning and concept of self are intricately linked.
A measure of moral reasoning based on a care ethic was developed. Moral thought that is based on care may more accurately reflect female development than the traditional justice-based morality. The relationship between the measure and women's ego identity was investigated. It is concluded that women's development of moral reasoning and concept of self are intricately linked.
When rights and responsibilities don't mix: Sex and sex-role patterns in moral judgment orientation
Pratt, M. W., & Royer, J. M. (1982). When rights and responsibilities don't mix: Sex and sex-role patterns in moral judgment orientation. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 14(3), 190-190-204
Leahey and Eiter found that females with less traditional (more masculine) self-ideals and self-concepts as assessed on the Bern Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) tended to prefer higher stage reasoning.
Leahey and Eiter found that females with less traditional (more masculine) self-ideals and self-concepts as assessed on the Bern Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) tended to prefer higher stage reasoning.
A Mind With Problems Is Not a Serious Mind
One of the principal questions which one has to put to oneself is this: how far or to what depth can the mind penetrate into itself? That is the quality of seriousness because it implies awareness of the whole structure of one's own psychological being, with its urges, its compulsions, its desire to fulfill, and its frustrations, its miseries, strains and anxieties, its struggles, sorrows, and the innumerable problems that it has. The mind that perpetually has problems is not a serious mind at all, but the mind that understands each problem as it arises and dissolves it immediately so that it is not carried over to the next day such a mind is serious.What are most of us interested in? If we have money, we turn to so-called spiritual things, or to intellectual amusements, or we discuss art, or take up painting to express ourselves. If we have no money, our time is taken up day after day with earning it, and we are caught in that misery, in the endless routine and boredom of it. Most of us are trained to function mechanically in some job, year in and year out. We have responsibilities, a wife and children to provide for, and caught up in this mad world we try to be serious, we try to become religious; we go to church, we join this religious organization or that or perhaps we hear about these meetings and because we have holidays we turn up here. But none of that will bring about this extraordinary transformation of the mind. - J. Krishnamurti, The Book of Life
過不去
(1) 別和小人過不去，因為他本來就過不去
(2) 別和社會過不去，因為你會過不去
(3) 別和自己過不去，因為一切會過去
(4) 別和往事過不去，因為它已經過去
(5) 別和現實過不去，因為你還要過下去
(6) 別和親人過不去，因為他們會不讓你過去
(7) 別和女人過不去，因為她會讓你通通過不去
(2) 別和社會過不去，因為你會過不去
(3) 別和自己過不去，因為一切會過去
(4) 別和往事過不去，因為它已經過去
(5) 別和現實過不去，因為你還要過下去
(6) 別和親人過不去，因為他們會不讓你過去
(7) 別和女人過不去，因為她會讓你通通過不去
Wednesday, September 28, 2011
Beyond Time
The conditioned mind, surely, is incapable of finding out what lies beyond time. That is sirs, the mind as we know it is conditioned by the past. The past, moving through the present to the future, conditions the mind; and this conditioned mind, being in conflict in trouble, being fearful, uncertain, seeks something beyond the frontiers of time. That is what we are all doing in various ways, is it not? But how can a mind that is the result of time ever find that which is timeless? The house of your beliefs, of your properties, of your attachments and comforting ways of thinking is constantly being broken into. But the mind goes on seeking security, so there is a conflict between what you want and what life's process demands of you. This is what is happening to every one of us.I do not know if this problem interests you at all. Everyday existence, with all its troubles, seems to be sufficient for most of us. Our only concern is to find an immediate answer to our various problems. But sooner or later the immediate answers are found to be unsatisfactory because no problem has an answer apart from the problem itself. But if I can understand the problem, all the intricacies of it, then the problem no longer exists. - J. Krishnamurti, The Book of Life
Intimacy
Intimacy is Erikson's sixth stage of psychosocial development, reaching its normative crisis in early adulthood after the major work on identity has been done and before generativity becomes a dominant issue. Erikson
was especially emphatic about the role of identity in intimacy development: "True engagement with others is the result and the test of firm self-delineation . . ." (1968, p.167).
Orlofsky, Marcia, and Lesser (1973) operationalized the psychosocial stage of intimacy by proposing five ways of dealing with intimacy issues based on general criteria drawn from Eriksonian theory:
1. The presence of absence of close relationships with male and female friends; 2. Presence or absence of an
enduring (committed) sexual relationship; and, 3. Depth versus superficiality of peer relationships. "Depth" is
assessed with respect to several referents, including degree of openness and closeness, respect, affection, mutuality, capacity to accept and resolve differences, and maturity of sexual attitudes and behavior.
Isolate--- The Isolate lives in an interpersonal void with only casual acquaintances.
Stereotyped --- Stereotyped persons are usually pleasant and friendly, but shallow and conventional. Pseudointimate --- similar to Stereotyped except that they are involved in a relatively permanent sexual
relationship that tends to be defined more by conventional roles than by sharing deep feel-
ings or self-disclosure.,
Preintimate--- The Preintimate has close, open relationships with others based on mutuality and
understanding yet is ambivalent about sexual commitment in an enduring relationship. and Intimate---- The Intimate mirrors the Preintimate except that he or she is involved in a committed, long-term,
sexual relationship
----Schiedel, D. G., & Marcia, J. E. (1985). Ego identity, intimacy, sex role orientation, and gender. Developmental Psychology, 21(1), 149-149-160.
was especially emphatic about the role of identity in intimacy development: "True engagement with others is the result and the test of firm self-delineation . . ." (1968, p.167).
Orlofsky, Marcia, and Lesser (1973) operationalized the psychosocial stage of intimacy by proposing five ways of dealing with intimacy issues based on general criteria drawn from Eriksonian theory:
1. The presence of absence of close relationships with male and female friends; 2. Presence or absence of an
enduring (committed) sexual relationship; and, 3. Depth versus superficiality of peer relationships. "Depth" is
assessed with respect to several referents, including degree of openness and closeness, respect, affection, mutuality, capacity to accept and resolve differences, and maturity of sexual attitudes and behavior.
Isolate--- The Isolate lives in an interpersonal void with only casual acquaintances.
Stereotyped --- Stereotyped persons are usually pleasant and friendly, but shallow and conventional. Pseudointimate --- similar to Stereotyped except that they are involved in a relatively permanent sexual
relationship that tends to be defined more by conventional roles than by sharing deep feel-
ings or self-disclosure.,
Preintimate--- The Preintimate has close, open relationships with others based on mutuality and
understanding yet is ambivalent about sexual commitment in an enduring relationship. and Intimate---- The Intimate mirrors the Preintimate except that he or she is involved in a committed, long-term,
sexual relationship
----Schiedel, D. G., & Marcia, J. E. (1985). Ego identity, intimacy, sex role orientation, and gender. Developmental Psychology, 21(1), 149-149-160.
age and spirituality
Identity versus identity diffusion is Erikson's fifth stage of psychosocial development occurring during adolescence.
Erikson, Erik. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.
Erikson, Erik. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.
- Mutran, E. (1987). Family, Social Ties and Self-Meaning in Old Age: The Development of an Affective Identity. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 4(4), 463-480
The Ethic of Care Interview
in appendix
Söchting, I., Skoe, E. E., & Marcia, J. E. (1994). Care-oriented moral reasoning and prosocial behavior: A question of gender or sex role orientation. Sex Roles, 31(3), 131-147
sex role orientation was a better predictor of ECI level than was gender.
Söchting, I., Skoe, E. E., & Marcia, J. E. (1994). Care-oriented moral reasoning and prosocial behavior: A question of gender or sex role orientation. Sex Roles, 31(3), 131-147
sex role orientation was a better predictor of ECI level than was gender.
Age, education, and sex effects on adult moral reasoning
White, C. (1988). Age, education, and sex effects on adult moral reasoning. International Journal of Aging and Human Development. 27, 271-281.
The role of age and education in adult moral reasoning was examined utilizing Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental stage theory of moral development and the most recent Standard Scoring System for assessing moral judgments. Individual interviews utilizing standard Kohlberg moral dilemmas were conducted with 195 adults ranging in age from nineteen to eighty-two years and in years of education from three to twenty-five years. Results indicated no overall significant effect for age of reasoner, no significant effect for sex, and a significant effect for education (p < .01). However, the effect of age was significant in the group with eighteen or more years of education, but not in the group with less than eighteen years of education.
Sex Differences in Adult Moral Orientations
Pratt, M. W., Golding, G., Hunter, W., & Sampson, R. (1988). Sex Differences in Adult Moral Orientations. Journal of Personality, 56(2), 373-391
Gilligan's (1982) hypotheses regarding sex differences in moral reasoning orientation were investigated in two samples of adults In Study 1, adults ages 18 to 75 were interviewed about both hypothetical and personal moral dilemmas Women were more likely than men overall to show Gilligan's care orientation as expected, particularly in personal reasoning However, these sex differences were not as pervasive as Gilligan argues, and were influenced by subject age, subject stage level on Kohlberg's measure of moral reasoning, and the type of real-life dilemma content recalled by subjects for discussion
Study 2 focused on the role of adult parental status as mediator of personal moral orientation differences in mid-life Consistent with the theorizing of Gutmann (1985), adult parents were shown to be sex-role differentiated in both self concept and moral orientation, whereas married nonparents were not Furthermore, sex differences in reasoning orientations were again found to be linked to differences in the dilemma content presented by men and women These studies partly support Gilligan's theorizing, but indicate less pervasive sex differences in some groups of adults than hypothesized
From inquiry to judgment: Age and sex differences in patterns of adult moral thinking and information-seeking
Pratt, M. W., Golding, G., Hunter, W., & Norris, J. E. (1988). From inquiry to judgment: Age and sex differences in patterns of adult moral thinking and information-seeking. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 27(2), 109-124.
This research examined age and sex variations in moral judgment processes across the life-span, primarily using objective questionnaire techniques. Both stage level of judgment and patterns of requests for further information following dilemma presentation were studied in 242 respondents, ages fourteen to ninety-two, in order to measure individual differences in judgment orientations hypothesized by Gilligan and suggested by theorists of aging. There were few indications of sex differences in either stage or patterns of information-seeking, except for a generally greater preference for additional information in decision-making by women. With respect to age trends, participants over age seventy-five scored at significantly lower stage levels than younger adult groups. However, elderly adults' judgments did not appear simply "regressed" to earlier developmental levels. On both objective and open-ended measures, older participants seemed more likely than younger groups to assimilate moral dilemma information to their own general cognitive frameworks, consistent with an hypothesis of greater synthesis in judgment among the elderly.
This research examined age and sex variations in moral judgment processes across the life-span, primarily using objective questionnaire techniques. Both stage level of judgment and patterns of requests for further information following dilemma presentation were studied in 242 respondents, ages fourteen to ninety-two, in order to measure individual differences in judgment orientations hypothesized by Gilligan and suggested by theorists of aging. There were few indications of sex differences in either stage or patterns of information-seeking, except for a generally greater preference for additional information in decision-making by women. With respect to age trends, participants over age seventy-five scored at significantly lower stage levels than younger adult groups. However, elderly adults' judgments did not appear simply "regressed" to earlier developmental levels. On both objective and open-ended measures, older participants seemed more likely than younger groups to assimilate moral dilemma information to their own general cognitive frameworks, consistent with an hypothesis of greater synthesis in judgment among the elderly.
Two perspectives: On self, relationships, and morality.
Two perspectives: On self, relationships, and morality.
Lyons, Nona P.
Harvard Educational Review, Vol 53(2), May 1983, 125-145.
Presents interview data from 2 8-yr-olds, 2 14-yr-olds, a 36-yr-old male, and a 46 yr-old-female. Data support C. Gilligan's (see record1979-03624-001 ) assertions that there are 2 distinct modes of describing the self in relation to others (separate/objective and connected) as well as 2 kinds of considerations used by individuals in making moral decisions (justice and care). The author describes a methodology, developed from the data, for systematically and reliably identifying these modes of self-definition and moral judgment through the use of 2 coding schemes. An empirical study testing Gilligan's hypotheses of the relationship of gender to self-definition and moral judgment is presented, in which 36 Ss, the majority aged 8–60 yrs, were interviewed. Results support the thesis that there are 2 different orientations to morality: one toward rights and justice and another toward care and response to others in their own terms. Although the findings suggest separate developmental shifts for men and women (with men favoring the former orientation and women the latter), these differences were not absolute.
Lyons (1983) conducted open-ended interviews with 30 individuals (8-60 + years), asking them to discuss
their own real-life moral dilemmas. These interviews were analyzed for considerations of rights and response in three components of their reasoning: construction (What is the problem?), resolution (What should be done about it?), and evaluation (Is it the right thing to do?). The results supported Gilligan's claim of sex-related moral orientations: response considerations were predominant for 75% of the females, whereas rights considerations were predominant for 79% of the males.
Lyons, Nona P.
Harvard Educational Review, Vol 53(2), May 1983, 125-145.
Presents interview data from 2 8-yr-olds, 2 14-yr-olds, a 36-yr-old male, and a 46 yr-old-female. Data support C. Gilligan's (see record
Lyons (1983) conducted open-ended interviews with 30 individuals (8-60 + years), asking them to discuss
their own real-life moral dilemmas. These interviews were analyzed for considerations of rights and response in three components of their reasoning: construction (What is the problem?), resolution (What should be done about it?), and evaluation (Is it the right thing to do?). The results supported Gilligan's claim of sex-related moral orientations: response considerations were predominant for 75% of the females, whereas rights considerations were predominant for 79% of the males.
Culture, gender, and self: A perspective from individualism-collectivism research
Culture, gender, and self: A perspective from individualism-collectivism research.
Kashima, Yoshihisa; Yamaguchi, Susumu; Kim, Uichol; Choi, Sang-Chin; Gelfand, Michele J.; Yuki, Masaki
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 69(5), Nov 1995, 925-937
Individualism and collectivism are often equated with independent vs. interdependent, agentic vs. communal, and separate vs. relational self-construals. Although these same concepts have been used to characterize both cultural and gender differences, a perspective of cultural evolution suggests it is unlikely. A division of labor within society may produce gender differences, but this cannot explain cultural differences. A study of self-construal involving 5 cultures (Australia, the United States, Hawaii, Japan, and Korea) shows that differences between these cultures are captured mostly by the extent to which people see themselves as acting as independent agents, whereas gender differences are best summarized by the extent to which people regard themselves as emotionally related to others.
Kashima, Yoshihisa; Yamaguchi, Susumu; Kim, Uichol; Choi, Sang-Chin; Gelfand, Michele J.; Yuki, Masaki
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 69(5), Nov 1995, 925-937
Individualism and collectivism are often equated with independent vs. interdependent, agentic vs. communal, and separate vs. relational self-construals. Although these same concepts have been used to characterize both cultural and gender differences, a perspective of cultural evolution suggests it is unlikely. A division of labor within society may produce gender differences, but this cannot explain cultural differences. A study of self-construal involving 5 cultures (Australia, the United States, Hawaii, Japan, and Korea) shows that differences between these cultures are captured mostly by the extent to which people see themselves as acting as independent agents, whereas gender differences are best summarized by the extent to which people regard themselves as emotionally related to others.
human inquiry
programs of human inquiry is far healthier than allowing them to remain superficially skills- and content-based.
every prospective researcher has ample opportunities to learn how to “be” a professional during his or her training?
Framing doctoral programs as projects of human inquiry
go beyond simple curricular considerations of content, assessment, and outcomes to think of curricula as projects of human inquiry.
Do we want new professionals to maintain the status quo, or do we want to prepare
them to push the boundaries of orthodoxy and deal with “the world as it might ecome”?
every prospective researcher has ample opportunities to learn how to “be” a professional during his or her training?
Framing doctoral programs as projects of human inquiry
go beyond simple curricular considerations of content, assessment, and outcomes to think of curricula as projects of human inquiry.
Do we want new professionals to maintain the status quo, or do we want to prepare
them to push the boundaries of orthodoxy and deal with “the world as it might ecome”?
Successful researcher identities are associated with numerous academic skills, including using and critiquing research methodologies, comprehending current issues in the field, posing research questions, understanding how one’s own research informs research
done by others, and articulating theoretical frameworks (Page, 2001; Richard-
son, 2006; Wilson, 2006).
done by others, and articulating theoretical frameworks (Page, 2001; Richard-
son, 2006; Wilson, 2006).
advisor and phd student
Zhao, C., Golde, C. M., & McCormick, A. C. (2007). More than a signature: How advisor choice and advisor behavior affect doctoral student satisfaction. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 31, 263–281.
specific models for how individuals should act and what it means to be a researcher, student, or mentor
specific models for how individuals should act and what it means to be a researcher, student, or mentor
Mentoring in Doctoral Education
Hall, L., & Burns, L. (2009). Identity Development and Mentoring in Doctoral Education. Harvard Educational Review, 79(1), 49-70.
Gilligan, C., & Atanucci, J. (1988). Two moral orientations: Gender differences and similarities. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 34, 223-237.
Walker, L. (1989). A longitudinal study of moral reasoning. Child Development, 60,157-166.
level of educational experience is an important predictor of moral stage development (e.g., Rest, 1983).
This may be particularly noteworthy in later adulthood , where more educated elderly adults may show substantial advantages (White, 1988).
Role-taking skills have also been argued to be central to the development of moral reasoning
(Kohlberg, 1976; Selman, 1980), with more advanced levels of role taking associated with higher stage levels.
levels of role engagement are positively linked to aspects of sociocognitive functioning in maturity as well (e.g., Dolen & Bearison, 1982; Pratt, Pancer, Hunsberger, & Manchester, 1990). Intrapersonal sensitivity to changes in the self with aging has also been shown to be linked to more sophisticated levels of moral and faith development in mature populations (Shulik, 1979).
Walker, L. (1989). A longitudinal study of moral reasoning. Child Development, 60,157-166.
level of educational experience is an important predictor of moral stage development (e.g., Rest, 1983).
This may be particularly noteworthy in later adulthood , where more educated elderly adults may show substantial advantages (White, 1988).
Role-taking skills have also been argued to be central to the development of moral reasoning
(Kohlberg, 1976; Selman, 1980), with more advanced levels of role taking associated with higher stage levels.
levels of role engagement are positively linked to aspects of sociocognitive functioning in maturity as well (e.g., Dolen & Bearison, 1982; Pratt, Pancer, Hunsberger, & Manchester, 1990). Intrapersonal sensitivity to changes in the self with aging has also been shown to be linked to more sophisticated levels of moral and faith development in mature populations (Shulik, 1979).
Labouvie-Vief et al. (1989) found that developmentally mature individuals were more sensitive and open to the expression of inner feelings, and that such advanced expressions of personal emotion were strongly linked to measures of verbal and cognitive maturity (e.g., Loevinger's, 1976, ego development stages).
Tuesday, September 27, 2011
why women feel bad in marriage?
an individuated self associated with greater developmental stage maturity for men --- feel suffocated
a connected self associated with greater maturity on the stage measures for women --- feel disconnected
--- Pratt, M. W., Diessner, R., Hunsberger, B., Pancer, S. M., & Savoy, K. (1991). Four pathways in the analysis of adult development and aging: Comparing analyses of reasoning about personal-life dilemmas. Psychology and Aging, 6(4), 666-675.
a connected self associated with greater maturity on the stage measures for women --- feel disconnected
--- Pratt, M. W., Diessner, R., Hunsberger, B., Pancer, S. M., & Savoy, K. (1991). Four pathways in the analysis of adult development and aging: Comparing analyses of reasoning about personal-life dilemmas. Psychology and Aging, 6(4), 666-675.
cognitive complexity and sociocognitive development in maturity
other measures of cognitive complexity are linked to aspects of sociocognitive development in maturity, perhaps more strongly than age per se (e.g., LabouvieVief, Hakim-Larson, & Hobart, 1987).
Labouvie-Vief, G, De Voe, M, & Bulka, D. (1989). Speaking about feelings: Conceptions of emotion across the life span. Psychology and Aging, 4, 425—437.
Labouvie-Vief, G., Hakim-Larson, J, & Hobart, C. (1987). Age, ego level, and the life span development of coping and defense processes. Psychology and Aging, 2, 286-293.
Labouvie-Vief, G, De Voe, M, & Bulka, D. (1989). Speaking about feelings: Conceptions of emotion across the life span. Psychology and Aging, 4, 425—437.
Labouvie-Vief, G., Hakim-Larson, J, & Hobart, C. (1987). Age, ego level, and the life span development of coping and defense processes. Psychology and Aging, 2, 286-293.
Kegan's (1982) ego-development stages
Kegan has argued that ego or self-development proceeds in stages of "meaning-making," which parallel the sequence described by Kohlberg for moral reasoning. Kegan's stages also show a cyclical or helical sequence of alternating focus on issues of autonomy/separation, versus issues of inclusion/connectedness, paralleling the orientation concepts suggested by Gilligan. These stages of self-development are studied through ways in which individuals frame and consider personal issues in their own lives as well.
---Pratt, M. W., Diessner, R., Hunsberger, B., Pancer, S. M., & Savoy, K. (1991). Four pathways in the analysis of adult development and aging: Comparing analyses of reasoning about personal-life dilemmas. Psychology and Aging, 6(4), 666-666-675
---Pratt, M. W., Diessner, R., Hunsberger, B., Pancer, S. M., & Savoy, K. (1991). Four pathways in the analysis of adult development and aging: Comparing analyses of reasoning about personal-life dilemmas. Psychology and Aging, 6(4), 666-666-675
Kohlberg's (1976) moral judgment stages and Gilligan's (1982) moral orientation system
Kohlberg (e.g., 1976), which describes a sequence of stages in the development of moral reasoning. This developmental theory has prominently high-lighted the impact of adult experiences in work and social responsibilities for the achievement of the most advanced moral stages (e.g., Kohlberg, 1973, 1984). Accordingly, Kohlberg's theory has been seen as particularly pertinent to the study of adult development, and there has been recent interest in patterns of development of moral reasoning across adulthood (e.g., Chap, 1986; Pratt, Golding, & Kerig, 1987; White, 1988).
Gilligan (1982), among others, has criticized the role of such standardized materials in investigating moral reasoning, urging study of individuals' reasoning about their own personal issues as more relevant. Gilligan has also suggested the need to examine dimensions of moral orientation, as well as stage, in understanding developmental pathways. Moral orientation is a typological construct, in contrast to the hierarchically ordered
stages of the Kohlberg system.
Gilligan suggested that there are two orientations, differentially linked to gender through early socialization, with men more likely to use and prefer a justice orientation, focused on adjudicating competing claims and rights, and women more likely to use and prefer a care orientation, focused on preserving and enhancing relationships (eg., Gilligan & Atanucci, 1988). These moral orientations are presumed to parallel distinct orientations in the self-concept, which focus respectively on individuated versus connected conceptions of the self and its attachments to others (Gilligan, 1982; Lyons, 1983).
Research on the Gilligan moral orientations has shown that some gender differences of the sort suggested appear but mainly in real-life dilemma reasoning, not in hypothetical contexts (Pratt, Golding, Hunter, & Sampson, 1988; Walker, 1989). As well, these gender differences in moral orientation responses appear to
depend on the type of dilemma recalled, with women describing personal relationship dilemmas more often than men, and thereby receiving more care orientation codings (Pratt, Golding, Hunter, & Sampson, 1988; Walker, 1989).
----Pratt, M. W, Diessner, R., Hunsberger, B., Pancer, S. M., & Savoy, K. (1991). Four pathways in the analysis of adult development and aging: Comparing analyses of reasoning about personal-life dilem-
mas. Psychology and Aging, 6, 666-675.
Gilligan (1982), among others, has criticized the role of such standardized materials in investigating moral reasoning, urging study of individuals' reasoning about their own personal issues as more relevant. Gilligan has also suggested the need to examine dimensions of moral orientation, as well as stage, in understanding developmental pathways. Moral orientation is a typological construct, in contrast to the hierarchically ordered
stages of the Kohlberg system.
Gilligan suggested that there are two orientations, differentially linked to gender through early socialization, with men more likely to use and prefer a justice orientation, focused on adjudicating competing claims and rights, and women more likely to use and prefer a care orientation, focused on preserving and enhancing relationships (eg., Gilligan & Atanucci, 1988). These moral orientations are presumed to parallel distinct orientations in the self-concept, which focus respectively on individuated versus connected conceptions of the self and its attachments to others (Gilligan, 1982; Lyons, 1983).
Research on the Gilligan moral orientations has shown that some gender differences of the sort suggested appear but mainly in real-life dilemma reasoning, not in hypothetical contexts (Pratt, Golding, Hunter, & Sampson, 1988; Walker, 1989). As well, these gender differences in moral orientation responses appear to
depend on the type of dilemma recalled, with women describing personal relationship dilemmas more often than men, and thereby receiving more care orientation codings (Pratt, Golding, Hunter, & Sampson, 1988; Walker, 1989).
----Pratt, M. W, Diessner, R., Hunsberger, B., Pancer, S. M., & Savoy, K. (1991). Four pathways in the analysis of adult development and aging: Comparing analyses of reasoning about personal-life dilem-
mas. Psychology and Aging, 6, 666-675.
Walker, L. J., de Vries, B., & Trevethan, S. D. (1987). Moral stages and moral orientations in real-life and hypothetical dilemmas. Child Development, 58, 842-858.
White, C. (1988). Age, education, and sex effects on adult moral reasoning. International Journal of Aging and Human Development. 27, 271-281.
Pratt, M. W., Golding, G., Hunter, W., & Norris, J. (1988). From inquiry to judgment: Age and sex differences in patterns of adult moral thinking and information-seeking. International Journal of Aging
and Human Development, 27, 109-124.
Pratt, M. W., Golding, G., Hunter, W., & Sampson, R. (1988). Sex differences in adult moral orientations. Journal of Personality, 56, 373-391.
Eisenberg, N., Miller, P. A., Shell, R., McNalley, S., & Shea, C. (1991). Prosocial development in adolescence: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 27, 849-857.
White, C. (1988). Age, education, and sex effects on adult moral reasoning. International Journal of Aging and Human Development. 27, 271-281.
Pratt, M. W., Golding, G., Hunter, W., & Norris, J. (1988). From inquiry to judgment: Age and sex differences in patterns of adult moral thinking and information-seeking. International Journal of Aging
and Human Development, 27, 109-124.
Pratt, M. W., Golding, G., Hunter, W., & Sampson, R. (1988). Sex differences in adult moral orientations. Journal of Personality, 56, 373-391.
Eisenberg, N., Miller, P. A., Shell, R., McNalley, S., & Shea, C. (1991). Prosocial development in adolescence: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 27, 849-857.
a mysterious female friend
she works all the time, except when she is sleeping
but i am not sure about this, maybe she dreams about her research while sleeping
i observe her daily schedule
wake up early to read and write
eat something, sleep for 6 hours
wake up early to read and write
.........repeat....
but i am not sure about this, maybe she dreams about her research while sleeping
i observe her daily schedule
wake up early to read and write
eat something, sleep for 6 hours
wake up early to read and write
.........repeat....
*Lyons, N. P. (1983). Two perspectives: On self, relationships, and morality. Harvard Education Review, 53, 125-145.
Liddell, D. L. (1998). Comparison of semistructured interviews with a quantitative measure of moral orientation. Journal of College Student Development, 39, 169-178.
Liddell, D. L., Halpin, G., & Halpin, W. G. (1992). The Measure of Moral Orientation: Measuring the ethics of care and justice. Journal of College Student Development, 33, 325-330.
*Pratt, M. W., Golding, G., Hunter, W., & Sampson, R. (1988). Sex differences in adult moral orientations. Journal of Personality, 56, 373-391.
•Gilligan, C., & Attanucci, J. (1988). Two moral orientations: Gender differences and similarities. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 34, 223-237.
*Yacker, N., & Weinberg, S. L. (1990). Care and justice moral orientation: A scale for its assessment. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55, 18-27.
Liddell, D. L. (1998). Comparison of semistructured interviews with a quantitative measure of moral orientation. Journal of College Student Development, 39, 169-178.
Liddell, D. L., Halpin, G., & Halpin, W. G. (1992). The Measure of Moral Orientation: Measuring the ethics of care and justice. Journal of College Student Development, 33, 325-330.
*Pratt, M. W., Golding, G., Hunter, W., & Sampson, R. (1988). Sex differences in adult moral orientations. Journal of Personality, 56, 373-391.
•Gilligan, C., & Attanucci, J. (1988). Two moral orientations: Gender differences and similarities. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 34, 223-237.
*Yacker, N., & Weinberg, S. L. (1990). Care and justice moral orientation: A scale for its assessment. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55, 18-27.
Measures of Moral Orientation
Jaffee, S., & Hyde, J. S. (2000). Gender differences in moral orientation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 126(5), 703-703-726
Gilligan (1982) proposed that the care orientation developed in three phases, the first characterized by an exclusive focus on one's own needs (i.e., caring for oneself only), the second characterized by self-sacrifice and a focus on others' needs, and the third characterized by the ability to balance others' needs and one's own needs. This sequence was derived from her interviews with 29 women, diverse in age, ethnic background, and socioeconomic status (SES), who were considering whether to undergo an abortion. Gilligan (1982) conducted a follow-up study 1 year after the initial abortion interview. Although many of the women had traversed at least two of the levels, none of the 21 women had progressed across all three, and many showed regression. Gilligan seems to have dropped this developmental sequence in her more recent work (Gilligan, Brown, & Rogers, 1990)
*Skoe, E. E., & Gooden, A. (1993). Ethic of care and real-life moral dilemma content in male and female early adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 13, 154-167.
Skoe, E. E., Pratt, M. W., Matthew, M., & Curror, S. E. (1996). The ethic of care: Stability over time, gender differences, and correlates in mid- to late adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 11, 280-292.
Skoe, E. E., Pratt, M. W., Matthew, M., & Curror, S. E. (1996). The ethic of care: Stability over time, gender differences, and correlates in mid- to late adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 11, 280-292.
Skoe and Marcia (1991) developed and validated the Ethic of Care Interview (ECI) to assess Gilh'gan's levels of care reasoning. The ECI is negatively related to measures of authoritarianism and positively related to measures of ego identity, cognitive complexity, role-taking, and MJI scores (Skoe & Diessner, 1994; Skoe, Pratt, Matthew, & Curror, 1996). Although some evidence exists that females score higher than males on the ECI (Skoe & Gooden, 1993; Skoe et al., 1996), this finding has not been replicated consistently (Skoe & Diessner, 1994; Sochting, Skoe, & Marcia, 1994). Unfortunately, the ECI has not been used to answer important questions about the developmental progression of care reasoning or mechanisms of change. Although Skoe and Diessner (1994) reported a positive association between ECI scores and age,
this finding was based on cross-sectional data. Skoe et al. (1996) reported moderately stable levels of care reasoning across a 4-year period in mid- to late adulthood, but it would be informative to explore longitudinally the development of care reasoning at earlier ages.
----Jaffee, S., & Hyde, J. S. (2000). Gender differences in moral orientation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 126(5), 703-703-726. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.126.5.703
this finding was based on cross-sectional data. Skoe et al. (1996) reported moderately stable levels of care reasoning across a 4-year period in mid- to late adulthood, but it would be informative to explore longitudinally the development of care reasoning at earlier ages.
----Jaffee, S., & Hyde, J. S. (2000). Gender differences in moral orientation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 126(5), 703-703-726. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.126.5.703
Lollis, S., Ross, H., & Leroux, L. (1996). An observational study of parents' socialization of moral orientation during sibling conflicts. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 42, 475-494.
Walker, L. J. (1997). Is morality gendered in early parent-child relationships? A commentary on the Lollis, Ross, and Leroux study. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 43, 148-159.
parental socialization practices that foster a relational self-concept in females and an individualistic self-concept in males (Lollis, Ross, & Leroux,1996; Walker, 1997).
Walker, L. J. (1997). Is morality gendered in early parent-child relationships? A commentary on the Lollis, Ross, and Leroux study. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 43, 148-159.
parental socialization practices that foster a relational self-concept in females and an individualistic self-concept in males (Lollis, Ross, & Leroux,1996; Walker, 1997).
The Prosocial Personality Battery
scales of the PSB (Penner et al., 1995)
---Skoe, E. E. A., Cumberland, A., Eisenberg, N., Hansen, K., & Perry, J. (2002). The Influences of Sex and Gender-Role Identity on Moral Cognition and Prosocial Personality Traits. Sex Roles, 46(9-10), 295-309.
---Skoe, E. E. A., Cumberland, A., Eisenberg, N., Hansen, K., & Perry, J. (2002). The Influences of Sex and Gender-Role Identity on Moral Cognition and Prosocial Personality Traits. Sex Roles, 46(9-10), 295-309.
The Personal Attributes Questionnaire--feminine (expressive) and masculine (instrumental) traits
feminine (expressive) and masculine (instrumental) traits
The PAQ (Spence & Helmreich, 1978) consists of 24 adjectives that tap feminine (expressive) and masculine (instrumental) traits. It has satisfactory reliability and validity (e.g., Helmreich, Spence, & Wilhelm,
1981; Wilson & Cook, 1984). The PAQ was scored following Spence and Helmreich’s procedure (Spence
& Helmreich, 1978).
---Skoe, E. E. A., Cumberland, A., Eisenberg, N., Hansen, K., & Perry, J. (2002). The Influences of Sex and Gender-Role Identity on Moral Cognition and Prosocial Personality Traits. Sex Roles, 46(9-10), 295-309.
The PAQ (Spence & Helmreich, 1978) consists of 24 adjectives that tap feminine (expressive) and masculine (instrumental) traits. It has satisfactory reliability and validity (e.g., Helmreich, Spence, & Wilhelm,
1981; Wilson & Cook, 1984). The PAQ was scored following Spence and Helmreich’s procedure (Spence
& Helmreich, 1978).
---Skoe, E. E. A., Cumberland, A., Eisenberg, N., Hansen, K., & Perry, J. (2002). The Influences of Sex and Gender-Role Identity on Moral Cognition and Prosocial Personality Traits. Sex Roles, 46(9-10), 295-309.
Skoe, E. E. (1995). Sex role orientation and its relationship to the development of identity and moral thought. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 36, 235–245.
Sochting, I., Skoe, E. E., & Marcia, J. E. (1994). Care-oriented moral reasoning and pro-social behavior: A question of gender or sex role orientation. Sex Roles, 31, 131–147.
Stake, J. E. (2000). When situations call for instrumentality and expressiveness: Resource appraisal, coping strategy choice, and adjustment. Sex Roles, 42, 865–885.
Pratt, M. W., & Royer, J. M. (1982). When rights and responsibilities don’t mix: Sex and sex-role patterns in moral judgement orientation. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 14, 190–205.
Ford, M. R., & Lowery, C. R. (1986). Gender differences in moral reasoning: A comparison of the use of justice and care orientations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 777–783.
Lyons, N. (1983). Two perspectives: On self, relationships, and morality. Harvard Educational Review, 53, 125–144.
Crandall, C. S., Tsang, J. A., Goldman, S., & Pennington, J. T. (1999). Newsworthy moral dilemmas: Justice, caring, and gender. Sex Roles, 40, 187–209.
Karniol, R., Gabay, R., Ochion, Y., & Harari, Y. (1998). Is gender or gender-role orientation a better predictor of empathy in adolescence? Sex Roles, 39, 45–59.
Skoe, E. E., & Diessner, R. (1994). Ethic of care, justice, identity and gender: An extension and replication. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 40, 102–119.
Sochting, I., Skoe, E. E., & Marcia, J. E. (1994). Care-oriented moral reasoning and pro-social behavior: A question of gender or sex role orientation. Sex Roles, 31, 131–147.
Stake, J. E. (2000). When situations call for instrumentality and expressiveness: Resource appraisal, coping strategy choice, and adjustment. Sex Roles, 42, 865–885.
Pratt, M. W., & Royer, J. M. (1982). When rights and responsibilities don’t mix: Sex and sex-role patterns in moral judgement orientation. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 14, 190–205.
Ford, M. R., & Lowery, C. R. (1986). Gender differences in moral reasoning: A comparison of the use of justice and care orientations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 777–783.
Lyons, N. (1983). Two perspectives: On self, relationships, and morality. Harvard Educational Review, 53, 125–144.
Crandall, C. S., Tsang, J. A., Goldman, S., & Pennington, J. T. (1999). Newsworthy moral dilemmas: Justice, caring, and gender. Sex Roles, 40, 187–209.
Karniol, R., Gabay, R., Ochion, Y., & Harari, Y. (1998). Is gender or gender-role orientation a better predictor of empathy in adolescence? Sex Roles, 39, 45–59.
Skoe, E. E., & Diessner, R. (1994). Ethic of care, justice, identity and gender: An extension and replication. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 40, 102–119.
Pratt, M. W., Diessner, R., Hunsberger, B., Pancer, S. M., & Savoy, K. (1991). Four pathways in the analysis of adult development and aging: Comparing analyses of reasoning about personal life dilemmas. Psychology and Aging, 6, 666–675.
Skoe, E. E., Pratt, M. W., Matthews, M., & Curror, S. E. (1996). The ethic of care: Stability over time, gender differences and correlates in mid to late adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 11, 280–202.
Walker, L. J., de Vries, B., & Trevethan, S. D. (1987). Moral stages and moral orientations in real-life and hypothetical dilemmas. Child Development, 58, 842–858.
Wark, G. R., & Krebs, D. L. (1996). Gender and dilemma differences in real-life moral judgment. Developmental Psychology,32, 220–230.
Wark, G. R., & Krebs, D. L. (1997). Sources of variation in moral judgment: Toward a model of real-life morality. Journal of Adult Development, 4, 163–178.
Karniol, R., Gabay, R., Ochion, Y., & Harari, Y. (1998). Is gender or gender-role orientation a better predictor of empathy in adolescence? Sex Roles, 39, 45–59.
Eisenberg, N., Schaller, M., Miller, P. A., Fultz, J., Fabes, R. A., & Shell, R. (1988). Gender-related traits and helping in a nonemergency situation. Sex Roles, 19, 605–618.
Eisenberg, N., Zhou, Q., & Koller, S. (2001). Brazilian adolescents’ prosocial moral judgment and behavior: Relations to sympathy, perspective taking, gender-role orientation, and demographic characteristics. Child Development, 72, 518–534.
Evans, R. G. (1984). Hostility and sex guilt: Perceptions of self and others as a function of gender and sex-role orientation. Sex Roles, 10, 207–215.
Skoe, E. E., Pratt, M. W., Matthews, M., & Curror, S. E. (1996). The ethic of care: Stability over time, gender differences and correlates in mid to late adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 11, 280–202.
Walker, L. J., de Vries, B., & Trevethan, S. D. (1987). Moral stages and moral orientations in real-life and hypothetical dilemmas. Child Development, 58, 842–858.
Wark, G. R., & Krebs, D. L. (1996). Gender and dilemma differences in real-life moral judgment. Developmental Psychology,32, 220–230.
Wark, G. R., & Krebs, D. L. (1997). Sources of variation in moral judgment: Toward a model of real-life morality. Journal of Adult Development, 4, 163–178.
Karniol, R., Gabay, R., Ochion, Y., & Harari, Y. (1998). Is gender or gender-role orientation a better predictor of empathy in adolescence? Sex Roles, 39, 45–59.
Eisenberg, N., Schaller, M., Miller, P. A., Fultz, J., Fabes, R. A., & Shell, R. (1988). Gender-related traits and helping in a nonemergency situation. Sex Roles, 19, 605–618.
Eisenberg, N., Zhou, Q., & Koller, S. (2001). Brazilian adolescents’ prosocial moral judgment and behavior: Relations to sympathy, perspective taking, gender-role orientation, and demographic characteristics. Child Development, 72, 518–534.
Evans, R. G. (1984). Hostility and sex guilt: Perceptions of self and others as a function of gender and sex-role orientation. Sex Roles, 10, 207–215.
Women typically score higher on the emotional aspects of empathy, sympathy (i.e., feeling sorrow or concern for someone), and personal distress (e.g., Davis & Franzoi, 1991; Eisenberg et al., 1989; Skoe, Hansen, & Nickerson, 2001).
Davis, M. H., & Franzoi, S. L. (1991). Stability and change in adolescent self consciousness and empathy. Journal of Research in Personality, 25, 70–87.
Skoe, E. E., Hansen, K. L., & Nickerson, W. (2001). Self and others: Relationships among ethic of care, empathy and intimacy.
Davis, M. H., & Franzoi, S. L. (1991). Stability and change in adolescent self consciousness and empathy. Journal of Research in Personality, 25, 70–87.
Skoe, E. E., Hansen, K. L., & Nickerson, W. (2001). Self and others: Relationships among ethic of care, empathy and intimacy.
Williams and Bybee (1994) found that more girls than boys reported guilt over violating norms of compassion and interpersonal trust (e.g., inconsiderateness and lying). In contrast, more boys than girls reported guilt over externally aggressive behaviors (e.g., property damage and fighting).
Williams, C., & Bybee, J. (1994). What do children feel guilty about? Developmental and gender differences. Developmental Psychology, 30, 617–623.
Williams, C., & Bybee, J. (1994). What do children feel guilty about? Developmental and gender differences. Developmental Psychology, 30, 617–623.
Jaffee, S., & Hyde, J. S. (2000). Gender differences in moral orientation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 703–726.
Skoe, E. E., & Diessner, R. (1994). Ethic of care, justice, identity and gender: An extension and replication. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 40, 102–119.
Walker, L. J. (1984). Sex differences in the development of moral reasoning: A critical review. Child Development, 55, 677–691.
Crandall, C. S., Tsang, J. A., Goldman, S., & Pennington, J. T. (1999). Newsworthy moral dilemmas: Justice, caring, and gender. Sex Roles, 40, 187–209.
Pratt, M. W., Diessner, R., Hunsberger, B., Pancer, S. M., & Savoy, K. (1991). Four pathways in the analysis of adult development and aging: Comparing analyses of reasoning about personal life dilemmas. Psychology and Aging, 6, 666–675.
Skoe, E. E., & Gooden, A. (1993). Ethic of care and real-life moral dilemma content in male and female early adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 13, 154–67.
Skoe, E. E., Pratt, M. W., Matthews, M., & Curror, S. E. (1996). The ethic of care: Stability over time, gender differences and correlates in mid to late adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 11, 280–202.
Walker, L. J., de Vries, B., & Trevethan, S. D. (1987). Moral stages and moral orientations in real-life and hypothetical dilemmas. Child Development, 58, 842–858.
Wark, G. R., & Krebs, D. L. (1996). Gender and dilemma differences in real-life moral judgment. Developmental Psychology, 32, 220–230.
Burford, H. C., Foley, L. A., Rollins, P. G., & Rosario, K. S. (1996). Gender differences in preschoolers’ sharing behavior. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 11(5), 17–25.
Skoe, E. E., & Diessner, R. (1994). Ethic of care, justice, identity and gender: An extension and replication. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 40, 102–119.
Walker, L. J. (1984). Sex differences in the development of moral reasoning: A critical review. Child Development, 55, 677–691.
Crandall, C. S., Tsang, J. A., Goldman, S., & Pennington, J. T. (1999). Newsworthy moral dilemmas: Justice, caring, and gender. Sex Roles, 40, 187–209.
Pratt, M. W., Diessner, R., Hunsberger, B., Pancer, S. M., & Savoy, K. (1991). Four pathways in the analysis of adult development and aging: Comparing analyses of reasoning about personal life dilemmas. Psychology and Aging, 6, 666–675.
Skoe, E. E., & Gooden, A. (1993). Ethic of care and real-life moral dilemma content in male and female early adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 13, 154–67.
Skoe, E. E., Pratt, M. W., Matthews, M., & Curror, S. E. (1996). The ethic of care: Stability over time, gender differences and correlates in mid to late adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 11, 280–202.
Walker, L. J., de Vries, B., & Trevethan, S. D. (1987). Moral stages and moral orientations in real-life and hypothetical dilemmas. Child Development, 58, 842–858.
Wark, G. R., & Krebs, D. L. (1996). Gender and dilemma differences in real-life moral judgment. Developmental Psychology, 32, 220–230.
Burford, H. C., Foley, L. A., Rollins, P. G., & Rosario, K. S. (1996). Gender differences in preschoolers’ sharing behavior. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 11(5), 17–25.
Monday, September 26, 2011
Davis, M.H. (1983). Measuring Individual Differences in Empathy: Evidence for a Multidimensional Approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113- 126.
Davis, M.H. (1994). Empathy: A Social Psychological Approach. WCB Brown and Benchmark, Madison.
Davis, M.H., Mitchell, K.V., Hall, J.A., Lothert, J., Snapp, T. & Meyer, M. (1999). Empathy, expectations, and Situational Preferences: Personality Influences on the Decision to Participate in Volunteer Helping Behaviors. Journal of Personality, 67(3),469-503.
Davis, M.H. (1994). Empathy: A Social Psychological Approach. WCB Brown and Benchmark, Madison.
Davis, M.H., Mitchell, K.V., Hall, J.A., Lothert, J., Snapp, T. & Meyer, M. (1999). Empathy, expectations, and Situational Preferences: Personality Influences on the Decision to Participate in Volunteer Helping Behaviors. Journal of Personality, 67(3),469-503.
Penner, Fritzsche, Craiger, Freifeld, 1995---- women score hgiher than men on the prosocial personality factor, Other-Oriented Empathy.
Penner, L.A., Fritzsche, B.A., Craiger, J.P. and Freifeld, T.R. 1995, Measuring the prosoical personality. in J. Butcher & C.D. Spielberger (Eds.) Advances in personality assessment, v10: 147-163, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Penner, L.A., Fritzsche, B.A., Craiger, J.P. and Freifeld, T.R. 1995, Measuring the prosoical personality. in J. Butcher & C.D. Spielberger (Eds.) Advances in personality assessment, v10: 147-163, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Skoe's ethic of care interview (ECI)
Skoe, E. E. A. 1998. the ethic of care: issues in moral development
The nature of the mind is such that if certain mental qualities are developed on a sound basis, they not only remain, but they also increase. In fact, once properly developed, the mind's good qualities eventually increase indefinitely. Therefore spiritual practice brings us long-term happiness and inner strength.
Dalai Lama
Dalai Lama
Eisenberg, N. (1992). The caring child. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Mills, R. S., Pedersen, J., & Grusec, J. E. (1989). Sex differences in reasoning and emotion about
altruism. Sex Roles, 20, 603-621.
Anderson, V. L. (1993). Gender differences in altruism among Holocaust rescuers. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 8, 43-58.
Andreoni, J., & Vesterlund, L. (2001). Which is the fair sex? Gender differences in altruism.
Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116, 293-312.
Belfield, C. R., & Beney, A. P. (2000). What determines alumni generosity? Evidence for the UK. Educational Economics, 8, 65-80.
Bolton, G. E., & Katok, E. (1995). An experimental test for gender differences in beneficent behavior. Economics Letters, 48, 287-292.
Gallagher, S. K. (1994). Doing their share: Comparing patterns of help given by older and younger adults. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 567-578.
Lammers, J. C. (1991). Attitudes, motives, and demographic predictors of volunteer commitment and service duration. Journal of Social Service Research, 14, 125-140.
Maslanka, H. (1993). Women volunteers at GMHC. In C. Squire (Ed.), Women and AIDS: Psychological perspectives: Gender & psychology series (pp. 110-125). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
O’Brien, K., Sedlacek, W. E., & Kandell, J. J. (1994). Willingness to volunteer among university students. NASPA Journal, 32, 67-73.
Belle, D. (1982). The stress of caring: Women as providers of social support. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.), Handbook of stress: Theoretical and clinical aspects (pp. 496-505). New York:
Free Press.
Eagly, A. H., & Steffen, V. J. (1984). Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of women and men into social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 735-754.
Feshbach, N. D. (1982). Sex differences in empathy and social behavior in children. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), The development of prosocial behavior (pp. 315-338). New York: Academic Press.
Hoffman, M. L. (1977). Sex differences in empathy and related behaviors. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 712-720.
Mills, R. S., Pedersen, J., & Grusec, J. E. (1989). Sex differences in reasoning and emotion about altruism. Sex Roles, 20, 603-621.
Wilson, J., & Musick, M. (1997). Who cares? Toward an integrated theory of volunteer work. American Sociological Review, 62, 694-713.
Piliavin, J. A., & Unger, R. K. (1985). The helpful but helpless female: Myth or reality? In V. E. O’Leary, R. Unger, & B. S. Wallston (Eds.), Women gender, and social psychology (pp. 149-189). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gilligan, C., & Attanucci, J. (1988). Two moral orientations: Gender differences and similarities. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 34, 223-237.
Lyons, N. P. (1983). Two perspectives: On self, relationships, and morality. Harvard Educational Review, 53, 125-145.
Hodgkinson, V. A., Weitzman, M. S., Noga, S. M., & Gorski, H. A. (1992). Giving and volunteering in the United States: Findings from a national survey. Washington, DC: Independent Sector.
Independent Sector. (2001). Giving and volunteering in the United States: Key findings. Washington, DC: Author.
Chambre, S. M. (1984). Is volunteering a substitute for role loss in old age? An empirical test of activity theory. The Gerontologist, 24, 292-298.
Gallagher, S. K. (1994). Doing their share: Comparing patterns of help given by older and younger adults. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 567-578.
Rosenthal, S., Feiring, C., & Lewis, M. (1998). Political volunteering from late adolescence to young adulthood: Patterns and predictions. Journal Social Issues, 54, 471-493.
Todd, M., Davis, K. E., & Cafferty, T. P. (1984). Who volunteers for adult development research?: esearch findings and practical steps to reach low volunteering groups. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 18, 177-184.
Maslanka, H. (1993). Women volunteers at GMHC. In C. Squire (Ed.), Women and AIDS: Psychological perspectives: Gender & psychology series (pp. 110-125). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Trudeau, K. J., & Devlin, A. L. (1996). College students and community service: Who, with whom, and why? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 1867-1888.
Thompson, A. (1995). The sexual division of leadership in volunteer emergency medical service
squads. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 6, 55-66.
Schlozman, D., Burns, N., & Verba, S. (1994). Gender and the pathways to participation: The role of resources. Journal of Politics, 56, 963-990.
Council of Economic Advisors. (2000). Philanthropy in the American economy. Washington, DC: Author.
Independent Sector. (1995). Giving and volunteering in the United States, 1994 volume II: Trends in
giving and volunteering by type of charity. Washington, DC: Author.
Hall, H. (2004). Gender differences in giving: Going, going, gone?: Fundraising as a profession: Advancements and challenges in the field [Special issue]. New Directions for Philanthropic Fundraising, 43, 71-81.
Kaplan, A. E., & Hayes, M. J. (1993). What we know about women as donors. Women as donors,
women as philanthropists [special issue]. New Directions for Philanthropic Fundraising, 2, 5-20.
Eagly, A. H., & Crowley, M. (1986). Gender and helping behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature. Psychological Bulletin, 100, 283-308.
Eckel, C. C., & Grossman, P. J. (1998). Are women less selfish than men? Evidence from dictator experiments. Economic Journal, 108, 726-735
Swamy, A., Knack, S., Lee, Y. & Azfar, O. (2001). Gender and corruption. Journal of Development Economics, 64(1), 25-55.
DiMaggio, P. & Louch, H. (1997). Who volunteers? Dominant and relevant statuses. Washington, DC: Aspen Institute; Nonprofit Sector Research Fund.
Hodgkinson, V. A., & Weitzman, M. S. (1990, 1992, 1994, 1996). Dimensions of the independent sector: A statistical profile. Washington, DC: Independent Sector.
Andreoni, J., & Vesterlund, L. (2001). Which is the fair sex? Gender differences in altruism. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116, 293-312.
Mills, R. S., Pedersen, J., & Grusec, J. E. (1989). Sex differences in reasoning and emotion about
altruism. Sex Roles, 20, 603-621.
Anderson, V. L. (1993). Gender differences in altruism among Holocaust rescuers. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 8, 43-58.
Andreoni, J., & Vesterlund, L. (2001). Which is the fair sex? Gender differences in altruism.
Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116, 293-312.
Belfield, C. R., & Beney, A. P. (2000). What determines alumni generosity? Evidence for the UK. Educational Economics, 8, 65-80.
Bolton, G. E., & Katok, E. (1995). An experimental test for gender differences in beneficent behavior. Economics Letters, 48, 287-292.
Gallagher, S. K. (1994). Doing their share: Comparing patterns of help given by older and younger adults. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 567-578.
Lammers, J. C. (1991). Attitudes, motives, and demographic predictors of volunteer commitment and service duration. Journal of Social Service Research, 14, 125-140.
Maslanka, H. (1993). Women volunteers at GMHC. In C. Squire (Ed.), Women and AIDS: Psychological perspectives: Gender & psychology series (pp. 110-125). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
O’Brien, K., Sedlacek, W. E., & Kandell, J. J. (1994). Willingness to volunteer among university students. NASPA Journal, 32, 67-73.
Belle, D. (1982). The stress of caring: Women as providers of social support. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.), Handbook of stress: Theoretical and clinical aspects (pp. 496-505). New York:
Free Press.
Eagly, A. H., & Steffen, V. J. (1984). Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of women and men into social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 735-754.
Feshbach, N. D. (1982). Sex differences in empathy and social behavior in children. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), The development of prosocial behavior (pp. 315-338). New York: Academic Press.
Hoffman, M. L. (1977). Sex differences in empathy and related behaviors. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 712-720.
Mills, R. S., Pedersen, J., & Grusec, J. E. (1989). Sex differences in reasoning and emotion about altruism. Sex Roles, 20, 603-621.
Wilson, J., & Musick, M. (1997). Who cares? Toward an integrated theory of volunteer work. American Sociological Review, 62, 694-713.
Piliavin, J. A., & Unger, R. K. (1985). The helpful but helpless female: Myth or reality? In V. E. O’Leary, R. Unger, & B. S. Wallston (Eds.), Women gender, and social psychology (pp. 149-189). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gilligan, C., & Attanucci, J. (1988). Two moral orientations: Gender differences and similarities. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 34, 223-237.
Lyons, N. P. (1983). Two perspectives: On self, relationships, and morality. Harvard Educational Review, 53, 125-145.
Hodgkinson, V. A., Weitzman, M. S., Noga, S. M., & Gorski, H. A. (1992). Giving and volunteering in the United States: Findings from a national survey. Washington, DC: Independent Sector.
Independent Sector. (2001). Giving and volunteering in the United States: Key findings. Washington, DC: Author.
Chambre, S. M. (1984). Is volunteering a substitute for role loss in old age? An empirical test of activity theory. The Gerontologist, 24, 292-298.
Gallagher, S. K. (1994). Doing their share: Comparing patterns of help given by older and younger adults. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 567-578.
Rosenthal, S., Feiring, C., & Lewis, M. (1998). Political volunteering from late adolescence to young adulthood: Patterns and predictions. Journal Social Issues, 54, 471-493.
Todd, M., Davis, K. E., & Cafferty, T. P. (1984). Who volunteers for adult development research?: esearch findings and practical steps to reach low volunteering groups. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 18, 177-184.
Maslanka, H. (1993). Women volunteers at GMHC. In C. Squire (Ed.), Women and AIDS: Psychological perspectives: Gender & psychology series (pp. 110-125). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Trudeau, K. J., & Devlin, A. L. (1996). College students and community service: Who, with whom, and why? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 1867-1888.
Thompson, A. (1995). The sexual division of leadership in volunteer emergency medical service
squads. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 6, 55-66.
Schlozman, D., Burns, N., & Verba, S. (1994). Gender and the pathways to participation: The role of resources. Journal of Politics, 56, 963-990.
Council of Economic Advisors. (2000). Philanthropy in the American economy. Washington, DC: Author.
Independent Sector. (1995). Giving and volunteering in the United States, 1994 volume II: Trends in
giving and volunteering by type of charity. Washington, DC: Author.
Hall, H. (2004). Gender differences in giving: Going, going, gone?: Fundraising as a profession: Advancements and challenges in the field [Special issue]. New Directions for Philanthropic Fundraising, 43, 71-81.
Kaplan, A. E., & Hayes, M. J. (1993). What we know about women as donors. Women as donors,
women as philanthropists [special issue]. New Directions for Philanthropic Fundraising, 2, 5-20.
Eagly, A. H., & Crowley, M. (1986). Gender and helping behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature. Psychological Bulletin, 100, 283-308.
Eckel, C. C., & Grossman, P. J. (1998). Are women less selfish than men? Evidence from dictator experiments. Economic Journal, 108, 726-735
Swamy, A., Knack, S., Lee, Y. & Azfar, O. (2001). Gender and corruption. Journal of Development Economics, 64(1), 25-55.
DiMaggio, P. & Louch, H. (1997). Who volunteers? Dominant and relevant statuses. Washington, DC: Aspen Institute; Nonprofit Sector Research Fund.
Hodgkinson, V. A., & Weitzman, M. S. (1990, 1992, 1994, 1996). Dimensions of the independent sector: A statistical profile. Washington, DC: Independent Sector.
Andreoni, J., & Vesterlund, L. (2001). Which is the fair sex? Gender differences in altruism. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116, 293-312.
Andreoni, J., Brown, E., & Rischall, I. (2001). Charitable giving by married couples: Who decides and why does it matter? Journal of Human Resources, 38, 111-133.
Andreoni, J., & Vesterlund, L. (2001). Which is the fair sex? Gender differences in altruism. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116, 293-312.
Andreoni, J., & Vesterlund, L. (2001). Which is the fair sex? Gender differences in altruism. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116, 293-312.
Harragan, B. L. (1977). Games mother never taught you. New York: Warner Books.
Henning, M., & Jardim, A. (1976). The managerial woman. New York: Pocket Books.
Lever, J. (1978). Sex differences in the complexity of children’s play and games. American Sociological Review, 43, 471-483.
Tannen, D. (1990). You just don’t understand. New York: Ballantine Books.
Grant, J. (1988). Women as managers: What they can offer organizations. Organizational Dynamics,
16(3), 56-63.
Rosener, J. B. (1990). Ways women lead. Harvard Business Review, 68(6), 109-125.
Henning, M., & Jardim, A. (1976). The managerial woman. New York: Pocket Books.
Lever, J. (1978). Sex differences in the complexity of children’s play and games. American Sociological Review, 43, 471-483.
Tannen, D. (1990). You just don’t understand. New York: Ballantine Books.
Grant, J. (1988). Women as managers: What they can offer organizations. Organizational Dynamics,
16(3), 56-63.
Rosener, J. B. (1990). Ways women lead. Harvard Business Review, 68(6), 109-125.
gender and representative bureaucracy
Keiser, Lael, Vicky M. Wilkins, Kenneth J. Meier, and Catherine Holland. 2002. Lipstick and logarithms: Gender, institutional context, and representative bureaucracy. American Political Science Review 96:553–65.
collaboration
Foster, M. K., & Meinhard, A. G. (2002). A Regression Model Explaining Predisposition to Collaborate. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 31(4), 549-564.
Boundary spanners
Goldman, S., & Kahnweiler, W. M. (2000). A Collaborator Profile for Executives of Nonprofit Organizations. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 10(4), 435-450.
Goldman and Kahnweiler (2000) found in a small, uncontrolled study that men were more likely than women to fit a collaborator profile, but they speculated that the men in their study (and perhaps men in nonprofit professions) may not fit traditional role models.
Goldman and Kahnweiler (2000) found in a small, uncontrolled study that men were more likely than women to fit a collaborator profile, but they speculated that the men in their study (and perhaps men in nonprofit professions) may not fit traditional role models.
gender difference in management stye
Fox, R. L., & Schuhmann, R. A. (1999). Gender and Local Government: A Comparison of Women and Men City Managers. Public Administration Review, 59(3), 231-242.
Keiser, Lael, Vicky M. Wilkins, Kenneth J. Meier, and Catherine Holland. 2002. Lipstick and logarithms: Gender, institutional context, and representative bureaucracy. American Political Science Review 96:553–65.
Nicholson-Crotty, Jill, and Kenneth J. Meier. 2002. Gender, representative bureaucracy, and law enforcement: The case of sexual assault. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston, MA.
Wilkins, Vicky M., and Lael R. Keiser. 2006. Linking passive and active representation for gender: The case of child support agencies. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 16:87–102.
Nicholson-Crotty, Jill, and Kenneth J. Meier. 2002. Gender, representative bureaucracy, and law enforcement: The case of sexual assault. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston, MA.
Wilkins, Vicky M., and Lael R. Keiser. 2006. Linking passive and active representation for gender: The case of child support agencies. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 16:87–102.
Wilkins, V. M. (2007). Exploring the causal story: Gender, active representation, and bureaucratic priorities.
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 17(1), 77-94.
Pratchett, L., & Wingfield, M. (1996). Petty bureaucracy and woolly-minded liberalism? The changing ethos of local government officers. Public Administration, 74(winter), 639-656.
Fox, R. L., & Schuhmann, R. A. (1999). Gender and local government: A comparison of women and men
city managers. Public Administration Review, 59(3), 231-242.
Goldman, S. M., & Kahnweiler, W. N. (2000). A collaborator profile for executives of nonprofit organi-
zations. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 10(4), 435-450.
Foster, M. K., & Meinhard, A. G. (2002). A regression model explaining predisposition to collaborate.
Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 31(4), 549-564.
Fine, M. G. (2007). Women, collaboration and social change: An ethics-based model of leadership. In J.
L. Chin, B. Lott, J. Rice, & J. Sanchez-Hucles (Eds.), Women and leadership: Transforming visions
and diverse voices (pp. 177-191). Malden, MA: Basil Blackwell.
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 17(1), 77-94.
Pratchett, L., & Wingfield, M. (1996). Petty bureaucracy and woolly-minded liberalism? The changing ethos of local government officers. Public Administration, 74(winter), 639-656.
Fox, R. L., & Schuhmann, R. A. (1999). Gender and local government: A comparison of women and men
city managers. Public Administration Review, 59(3), 231-242.
Goldman, S. M., & Kahnweiler, W. N. (2000). A collaborator profile for executives of nonprofit organi-
zations. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 10(4), 435-450.
Foster, M. K., & Meinhard, A. G. (2002). A regression model explaining predisposition to collaborate.
Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 31(4), 549-564.
Fine, M. G. (2007). Women, collaboration and social change: An ethics-based model of leadership. In J.
L. Chin, B. Lott, J. Rice, & J. Sanchez-Hucles (Eds.), Women and leadership: Transforming visions
and diverse voices (pp. 177-191). Malden, MA: Basil Blackwell.
Sunday, September 25, 2011
Knowledge Is Not Wisdom
In our search for knowledge, in our acquisitive desires, we are losing love, we are blunting the feeling for beauty, the sensitivity to cruelty; we are becoming more and more specialized and less and less integrated. Wisdom cannot be replaced by knowledge, and no amount of explanation, no accumulation of facts, will free man from suffering. Knowledge is necessary, science has its place; but if the mind and heart are suffocated by knowledge, and if the cause of suffering is explained away, life becomes vain and meaningless.Information, the knowledge of facts, though ever increasing, is by its very nature limited. Wisdom is infinite, it includes knowledge and the way of action; but we take hold of a branch and think it is the whole tree. Through the knowledge of the part, we can never realize the joy of the whole. Intellect can never lead to the whole, for it is only a segment, a part.We have separated intellect from feeling, and have developed intellect at the expense of feeling. We are like a three-legged object with one leg much longer than the others, and we have no balance. We are trained to be intellectual; our education cultivates the intellect to be sharp, cunning, acquisitive, and so it plays the most important role in our life. Intelligence is much greater than intellect, for it is the integration of reason and love; but there can be intelligence only when there is self-knowledge, the deep understanding of the total process of oneself. - J. Krishnamurti, The Book of Life
The Function of the Intellect
I do not know if you have considered the nature of the intellect. The intellect and its activities are all right at a certain level, are they not? But when the intellect interferes with that pure feeling, then mediocrity sets in. To know the function of the intellect, and to be aware of that pure feeling, without letting the two mingle and destroy each other, requires a very clear, sharp awareness.So the function of the intellect is always, is it not, to inquire, to analyze, to search out; but because we want to be secure inwardly, psychologically, because we are afraid, anxious about life, we come to some form of conclusion to which we are committed. From one commitment we proceed to another, and I say that such a mind, such an intellect, being slave to a conclusion, has ceased to think, to inquire. - J. Krishnamurti, The Book of Life
Be an Outsider
I do not know if you have observed what an enormous part the intellect plays in our life. The newspapers, the magazines, everything about us is cultivating reason. Not that I am against reason. On the contrary, one must have the capacity to reason very clearly, sharply. But if you observe you find that the intellect is everlastingly analyzing why we belong or do not belong, why one must be an outsider to find reality, and so on. We have learned the process of analyzing ourselves. So there is the intellect with its capacity to inquire, to analyze, to reason and come to conclusions; and there is feeling, pure- feeling, which is always being interrupted, colored by the intellect. And when the intellect interferes with pure feeling, out of this interference grows a mediocre mind. On the one hand we have intellect, with its capacity to reason based upon its likes and dislikes, upon its conditioning, upon its experience and knowledge; and on the other, we have feeling, which is corrupted by society, by fear. And will these two reveal what is true? Or is there only perception, and nothing else? - J. Krishnamurti, The Book of Life
A Mind that is Learning
What do we mean by learning? Is there learning when you are merely accumulating knowledge, gathering information? That is one kind of learning, is it not? As a student of engineering, you study mathematics, and so on; you are learning, informing yourself about the subject. You are accumulating knowledge in order to use that knowledge in practical ways. Your learning is accumulative, additive. Now, when the mind is merely taking on, adding, acquiring, is it learning? Or is learning something entirely different? I say the additive process that we now call learning is not learning at all. It is merely a cultivation of memory, which becomes mechanical; and a mind that functions mechanically, like a machine, is not capable of learning. A machine is never capable of learning, except in the additive sense. Learning is something quite different, as I shall try to show you. A mind that is learning never says, 'I know,' because knowledge is always partial, whereas learning is complete all the time. Learning does not mean starting with a certain amount of knowledge, and adding to it further knowledge. That is not learning at all; it is a purely mechanistic process. To me, learning is something entirely different. I am learning about myself from moment to moment, and the myself is extraordinarily vital; it is living, moving; it has no beginning and no end. When I say, 'I know myself,' learning has come to an end in accumulated knowledge. Learning is never cumulative; it is a movement of knowing which has no beginning and no end. - J. Krishnamurti, The Book of Life
Knowledge Assumes Authority
There is no movement of learning when there is the acquisition of knowledge; the two are incompatible, they are contradictory. The movement of learning implies a state in which the mind has no previous experience stored up as knowledge. Knowledge is acquired, whereas learning is a constant movement which is not an additive or acquisitive process; therefore, the movement of learning implies a state in which the mind has no authority. All knowledge assumes authority, and a mind that is entrenched in the authority of knowledge cannot possibly learn. The mind can learn only when the additive process has completely ceased. It is rather difficult for most of us to differentiate between learning and acquiring knowledge. Through experience, through reading, through listening, the mind accumulates knowledge; it is an acquisitive process, a process of adding to what is already known, and from this background of knowledge we function. Now, what we generally call learning is this very same process of acquiring new information and adding it to the store of knowledge we already have. But I am talking about something entirely different. By learning I do not mean adding to what you already know. You can learn only when there is no attachment to the past as knowledge, that is, when you see something new and do not translate it in terms of the known.The mind that is learning is an innocent mind, whereas the mind that is merely acquiring knowledge is old, stagnant, corrupted by the past. An innocent mind perceives instantly, it is learning all the time without accumulating, and such a mind alone is mature. - J. Krishnamurti, The Book of Life
The Brain Produces the Mind
What is the mind? When I put that question, please don't wait for a reply from me. Look at your own mind; observe the ways of your own thought. What I describe is only an indication; it is not the reality. The reality you must experience for yourself. The word, the description, the symbol, is not the actual thing. The word door is obviously not the door. The word 'love' is not the feeling, the extraordinary quality that the word indicates. So do not let us confuse the word, the name, the symbol, with the fact. If you merely remain on the verbal level and discuss what the mind is, you are lost, for then you will never feel the quality of this astonishing thing called the mind.So, what is the mind? Obviously, the mind is our total awareness or consciousness; it is the total way of our existence, the whole process of our thinking. The mind is the result of the brain. The brain produces the mind. Without the brain there is no mind, but the mind is separate from the brain. It is the child of the brain. If the brain is limited, damaged, the mind is also damaged. The brain, which records every sensation, every feeling of pleasure or pain, the brain with all its tissues, with all its responses, creates what we call the mind, although the mind is independent of the brain.You don't have to accept this. You can experiment with it and see for yourself. - J. Krishnamurti, The Book of Life
The Anchored Mind
We carry on like machines with our tiresome daily routine. How eagerly the mind accepts a pattern of existence, and how tenaciously it clings to it! As by a driven nail, the mind is held together by idea, and around the idea it lives and has its being. The mind is never free, pliable, for it is always anchored; it moves within the radius, narrow or wide, of its own center. From its center it dare not wander; and when it does, it is lost in fear. Fear is not of the unknown, but of the loss of the known. The unknown does not incite fear, but dependence on the known does. Fear is always with desire, the desire for the more or for the less. The mind, with its incessant weaving of patterns, is the maker of time; and with time there is fear, hope and death. - J. Krishnamurti, The Book of Life
contact -- person center
Homan's sociological theory predicted a positive relationship between the frequency of interaction or contact between two people and the amount of liking they have for one another (1950: 110-113).
Social psychologists, too, have studied contact, finding repeatedly that increased contact
with other people (Rubin, 1973: 113-133) or with such objects as written "Chinese characters" (Zajonc, 1968) will increase how much individuals like them.
---Gutek, B. A., Aaron Groff, C., & Alison, M. K. (1990). Predicting Social-Sexual Behavior at Work: A Contact Hypothesis. The Academy of Management Journal, 33(3), 560-577.
Social psychologists, too, have studied contact, finding repeatedly that increased contact
with other people (Rubin, 1973: 113-133) or with such objects as written "Chinese characters" (Zajonc, 1968) will increase how much individuals like them.
---Gutek, B. A., Aaron Groff, C., & Alison, M. K. (1990). Predicting Social-Sexual Behavior at Work: A Contact Hypothesis. The Academy of Management Journal, 33(3), 560-577.
Gender and Leadership Style
Eagly, A. H., & Johnson, B. T. (1990). Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 108(2), 233-256.
The idea that gender is a dichotomous and unidimensional variable anchored by the bipolar dimensions of masculinity and femininity was replaced in the 1970s with an understanding that gender typing is multidimensional (Bern, 1974; Constantinople, 1973; Spence & Helmreich, 1975, 1978). This understanding lead to the development of instruments (e.g., the Bem Sex Role Inventory, Bern, 1974) that allowed for independent yet concurrent measures of masculinity and femininity and that incorporated the concept of androgyny for subjects who endorsed both masculine and
feminine qualities. Others (e.g., Bakan, 1966; Block, 1973; Kagan, 1964) have likewise added to the conceptual base that Kapalka and Lachenmeyer (1989) noted as essential for effective gender role analysis to differentiate between masculine and feminine characteristics without reliance upon rigid, bipolar categorizations.
feminine qualities. Others (e.g., Bakan, 1966; Block, 1973; Kagan, 1964) have likewise added to the conceptual base that Kapalka and Lachenmeyer (1989) noted as essential for effective gender role analysis to differentiate between masculine and feminine characteristics without reliance upon rigid, bipolar categorizations.
- Bern, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155-162.
- Constantinople, A. (1973). Masculinity-femininity: An exception to a famous dictum? Psychological Bulletin, 80, 389-407.
- Spence, J. T., & Helmrich, R. L. (1975). Rating of self and peers on sex-role attributes and their relation to self-esteem and conceptions of masculinity and femininity. Journal of personality and Social Psychology, 32, 29-39.
- Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1978). Masculinity and feminity: Their psychological dimension, con'elates, and antecedents. Austin: Texas University Press.
- Bakan, D. (1966). The duality of human existence. Chicago: Rand McNally.
- Block, J. H. (1973). Conceptions of sex-role: Some cross-cultural and longitudinal perspectives. American Psychologist, 28, 512-526.
- Kagan, J. (1964). Acquisition and significance of sex-typing and sex role identity. In M. L. Hoffman & L. W. Hoffman (Eds.), Review of child development research (Vol. 1). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
- Kapalka, G. M., & Lachenmeyer, J. R. (1989). Sex-role flexibility, locus of control, and occupational status. Sex Roles, 19, 417-427.
Evidence suggests that, in negotiation experiments, participants use the sex of their opponent as a cue that triggers expectations about how the opponent will behave. In a study of bargaining interactions using a variation of a Prisoner’s Dilemma game, it was found that when the opponent (a confederate) used a competitive strategy, participants were more than three times as likely to guess that the opponent was a male
as opposed to a female (King, Miles, & Kniska, 1991).
as opposed to a female (King, Miles, & Kniska, 1991).
destiny and choices
it is said that your choices decide your destiny, not your destiny decides your choices
in reality, the choices people are able to have sometimes are quite limited
it is not that people are lazy or passive, but sometimes, choices are so limited in a way that people let destiny decide their lives...
in reality, the choices people are able to have sometimes are quite limited
it is not that people are lazy or passive, but sometimes, choices are so limited in a way that people let destiny decide their lives...
As information processors, humans readily fall victim to the cognitive process described
centuries ago by Francis Bacon (1620/1902):
The human understanding, when any proposition has been once laid down . . . forces everything else to
add fresh support and confirmation . . . it is the peculiar and perpetual error of the human understanding to be more moved and excited by affirmatives than negatives, (pp. 23-24)
centuries ago by Francis Bacon (1620/1902):
The human understanding, when any proposition has been once laid down . . . forces everything else to
add fresh support and confirmation . . . it is the peculiar and perpetual error of the human understanding to be more moved and excited by affirmatives than negatives, (pp. 23-24)
Snyder, M., Tanke, E. D., & Berscheid, E. (1977). Social perception and interpersonal behavior: On the self-fulfilling nature of social stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35(9), 656-666.
perceiver's stereotypes cause the person perceived to act corresponding to the stereotypes
perceiver's stereotypes cause the person perceived to act corresponding to the stereotypes
how can I compete with her/him?
her husband left her for another her/him
she felt extremely sad and went through 2 year depression
she said she can't compete with another her/him because she will never win
caroline asked: might you happen to know who is this she/he?
she said her husband became a buddhism monk .....
he finds what he wants in his life
she is still lost in her life....
he was her reference point in her life
without him, she doesn't know who she is...
---- this remind me of the words by Simone de Beauvoir (1974)
she felt extremely sad and went through 2 year depression
she said she can't compete with another her/him because she will never win
caroline asked: might you happen to know who is this she/he?
she said her husband became a buddhism monk .....
he finds what he wants in his life
she is still lost in her life....
he was her reference point in her life
without him, she doesn't know who she is...
---- this remind me of the words by Simone de Beauvoir (1974)
Frieze, I. H., & Ramsey, S. J. Nonverbal maintenance of traditional sex roles, Joumal of Social
Issues, 1976, 32, 133-141.
Unger, R. K. (1976). Male is Greater than Female: The Socialization of Status Inequality. The Counseling Psychologist, 6(2), 2-9.
Lenney, E. Women's self-confidence in achievement settings. Psychological Bulletin, 1977, 84(1), 1-13.
Frodi, A,, Macaulay, J., & Thome, P. R. Are women always less aggressive than men? A review
of the experimental literature. Psychological Bulletin, 1977, 84(4), 634- 460.
Hagen, R. L., & Kahn, A. Discrimination against competent women. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 1975, 5(4), 362-376.
Although women have complained about job discrimination, the experimental literature has revealed little discrimination against competent women. On the thesis that discrimination would only occur when a competent woman was in interaction with a man, a 2 × 3 × 2 × 2 experiment factorially varied sex of subject, type of interaction (competition, cooperation, observation), sex of others, and competency of others. As predicted, males like the competent woman only when they observed her performance and were not involved in the interaction. Furthermore, both males and females were more likely to exclude a competent women from their group than a competent man, and to include an incompetent woman than an incompetent man. Although competent women were not discriminated against on a leadership measure, it was clear that an atmosphere conducive to low performance by women was established. These findings were interpreted in terms of the disconfirmation of stereotypic beliefs regarding the relative competencies of men and women, and ethnocentrism.
Issues, 1976, 32, 133-141.
Unger, R. K. (1976). Male is Greater than Female: The Socialization of Status Inequality. The Counseling Psychologist, 6(2), 2-9.
Lenney, E. Women's self-confidence in achievement settings. Psychological Bulletin, 1977, 84(1), 1-13.
Frodi, A,, Macaulay, J., & Thome, P. R. Are women always less aggressive than men? A review
of the experimental literature. Psychological Bulletin, 1977, 84(4), 634- 460.
Hagen, R. L., & Kahn, A. Discrimination against competent women. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 1975, 5(4), 362-376.
Although women have complained about job discrimination, the experimental literature has revealed little discrimination against competent women. On the thesis that discrimination would only occur when a competent woman was in interaction with a man, a 2 × 3 × 2 × 2 experiment factorially varied sex of subject, type of interaction (competition, cooperation, observation), sex of others, and competency of others. As predicted, males like the competent woman only when they observed her performance and were not involved in the interaction. Furthermore, both males and females were more likely to exclude a competent women from their group than a competent man, and to include an incompetent woman than an incompetent man. Although competent women were not discriminated against on a leadership measure, it was clear that an atmosphere conducive to low performance by women was established. These findings were interpreted in terms of the disconfirmation of stereotypic beliefs regarding the relative competencies of men and women, and ethnocentrism.
Masculinity-Femininity scale of the California Psychological Inventory
Masculine items
49. Acts as a leader
46. Aggressive
58. Ambitious
22. Analytical
13. Assertive
10. Athletic
55. Competitive
4. Defends own beliefs
37. Dominant
19. Forceful
25. Has leadership abilities
7. Independent
52. Individualistic
31. Makes decisions easily
40. Masculine
1. Self-reliant
34. Self-sufficient
16. Strong personality
43. Willing to take a stand
28. Willing to take risks
Feminine items
11. Affectionate
5. Cheerful
50. Childlike
32. Compassionate
53. Does not use harsh language
35. Eager to soothe hurt feelings
20. Feminine
14. Flatterable
59. Gentle
47. Gullible
56. Loves children
17. Loyal
26. Sensitive to the needs of others
8. Shy
38. Soft spoken
23. Sympathetic
44. Tender
29. Understanding
41. Warm
2. Yielding
---Bern, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155-162.
49. Acts as a leader
46. Aggressive
58. Ambitious
22. Analytical
13. Assertive
10. Athletic
55. Competitive
4. Defends own beliefs
37. Dominant
19. Forceful
25. Has leadership abilities
7. Independent
52. Individualistic
31. Makes decisions easily
40. Masculine
1. Self-reliant
34. Self-sufficient
16. Strong personality
43. Willing to take a stand
28. Willing to take risks
Feminine items
11. Affectionate
5. Cheerful
50. Childlike
32. Compassionate
53. Does not use harsh language
35. Eager to soothe hurt feelings
20. Feminine
14. Flatterable
59. Gentle
47. Gullible
56. Loves children
17. Loyal
26. Sensitive to the needs of others
8. Shy
38. Soft spoken
23. Sympathetic
44. Tender
29. Understanding
41. Warm
2. Yielding
---Bern, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155-162.
Saturday, September 24, 2011
values -- male vs female
- Study of Values --- regularly produces higher scores, on the average, for women on the religious, social, and aesthetic scales, with men scoring higher on economic, political, and theoretical scales.
- Allport, G. W., P. E. Vernon, and G. Lindzey, Manual of Directions: A Study of Values, Cambridge, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin, 1951.
Amidjaja, I. R., & Vinacke, W. E. Achievement, nurturance, and competition in male and female
triads. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1965,2,447-451.
Horner (1968). She found that many women are motivated by a desire to avoid success, because success in competitive achievement situations might lead to negative outcomes such as unpopularity.
BOND, J. R., & VINACKK, W. E. Coalitions in mixed-sex triads. Sociometry, 1961, 24, 61-71.
VINACKE, W. E. Sex roles in a three-person game. Sociomelry, 1959, 22, 343-360.
VINACKE, W. E., & ARDOFF, A. An experimental study of coalitions in the triad. American Sociological,
Review, 1957, 23, 406-414.
TYLER, L. E. The psychology of human differences. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1965.
triads. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1965,2,447-451.
Horner (1968). She found that many women are motivated by a desire to avoid success, because success in competitive achievement situations might lead to negative outcomes such as unpopularity.
BOND, J. R., & VINACKK, W. E. Coalitions in mixed-sex triads. Sociometry, 1961, 24, 61-71.
VINACKE, W. E. Sex roles in a three-person game. Sociomelry, 1959, 22, 343-360.
VINACKE, W. E., & ARDOFF, A. An experimental study of coalitions in the triad. American Sociological,
Review, 1957, 23, 406-414.
TYLER, L. E. The psychology of human differences. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1965.
differences in male and female conflict behaviors
women use pro-social, regressive, compromising, passive, and avoiding styles (Rahim, 1983; Roloff and Greenberg, 1979; Shockley-Zalabak and Morley, 1984).
- Rahim, M.A. 1983. "A measure of styles of handling interpersonal conflict." Academy of Management Journal 26:368-376.
- Roloff, M.E., and B.S. Greenberg. 1979. "Sex differences in choice of modes of conflict resolution in real-life and television." Communication Quarterly 27: 3-12.
Shockley-Zalabak, P., and D.D. Morley. 1984. "Sex differences in conflict style preferences." Communication Research Reports 1: 28-32.- Womack, D. F. (1987). Conflicts Between Women at Work. Women and Language, 11(1).
- Ashmore, R. D., & DelBoca, F. K. (1979). Sex-stereotypes and implicit personality theory:
Toward a cognitive-social psychological conceptualization. Sex Roles, 5, 219-248. - Broverman, I. K., Vogel, S. R., Broverman, D. M., Clarkson, F. E., & Rosenkrantz,
P. S. (1972). Sex-role stereotypes: A current appraisal. Journal of Social Issues, 28, 59-78. - Deaux, K. (1976). The behavior of women and men. Belmont, CA: Brooks-Cole.
- Deaux, K. (1976). The behavior of women and men. Belmont, CA: Brooks-Cole.
computer-mediated vs face-to-face communication and other-awareness
computer-mediated communication reduces other-awareness (e.g., Kiesler, Siegel, & McGuire, 1984;
Kiesler, Zubrow, Moses, & Geller, 1985; Orcutt & Anderson, 1977; Siegel, Dubrovsky, Kiesler, & McGuire, 1986; Sproull & Kiesler, 1986). Computer-mediated group decisions, for example, are less influenced by social norms and social pressure than face-to-face group decisions (McGuire, Kiesler, & Siegel, 1987).
Computer users also display more uninhibited behavior, such as name-calling and swearing (Kiesler et al., 1984; McGuire et al., 1987; Siegel et al., 1986), and are less responsive to one another's ideas (Kiesler et al., 1985), relative to face-to-face conversants.
people describe themselves in less socially desirable terms when responding to computer-mediated questions in comparison to paper and pencil questions or interviews, presumably because they have less concern for impression management (e.g., Kiesler & Sproull, 1986; Klein, Greist, & VanCura, 1975; Lucas, Mullin, Luna, & Mcinroy, 1977). Finally, Matheson and Zanna (1988) found that, relative to face-to-face communicators, computer users reported less public self-awareness, that is less awareness of the dimensions of one's self that are visible to others and subject to social evaluation.
---Kimberly, M. (1991). Social cues in computer-mediated negotiations: Gender makes a difference. Computers in Human Behavior, 7(3), 137-145
Kiesler, Zubrow, Moses, & Geller, 1985; Orcutt & Anderson, 1977; Siegel, Dubrovsky, Kiesler, & McGuire, 1986; Sproull & Kiesler, 1986). Computer-mediated group decisions, for example, are less influenced by social norms and social pressure than face-to-face group decisions (McGuire, Kiesler, & Siegel, 1987).
Computer users also display more uninhibited behavior, such as name-calling and swearing (Kiesler et al., 1984; McGuire et al., 1987; Siegel et al., 1986), and are less responsive to one another's ideas (Kiesler et al., 1985), relative to face-to-face conversants.
people describe themselves in less socially desirable terms when responding to computer-mediated questions in comparison to paper and pencil questions or interviews, presumably because they have less concern for impression management (e.g., Kiesler & Sproull, 1986; Klein, Greist, & VanCura, 1975; Lucas, Mullin, Luna, & Mcinroy, 1977). Finally, Matheson and Zanna (1988) found that, relative to face-to-face communicators, computer users reported less public self-awareness, that is less awareness of the dimensions of one's self that are visible to others and subject to social evaluation.
---Kimberly, M. (1991). Social cues in computer-mediated negotiations: Gender makes a difference. Computers in Human Behavior, 7(3), 137-145
another 300 papers
what assumed to be easy might appear to be difficult in reality
what assumed to be difficult might appear to be easy in reality
the former are more likely to happen after reading enough papers
what assumed to be difficult might appear to be easy in reality
the former are more likely to happen after reading enough papers
Friday, September 23, 2011
- Benton, A. A. (1975). Bargaining visibility and the attitudes and negotiation behavior of male and
female group representatives. Journal of Personality, 43, 661–675. - Benton, A. A. (1973). Reactions to demands to win from an opposite sex opponent. Journal of Personality, 41, 430–442.
- Bern, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 42, 155-162. - Matheson, K. (1991). Social cues in computer-mediated negotiations: Gender makes a difference
Computers in Human Behavior, 7, 137–145. - Pruitt, D. G., Carnevale, P. J. D., Forcey, B., & Van Slyck, M. V. (1986). Gender effects in negotiation: Constituent surveillance and contentious behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 22, 264–265.
- Stamato, L. (1992). Voice, place, and process: Research on gender, negotiation, and conflict resolu-
tion. Mediation Quarterly, 9, 375–386. - Watson, C. (1994). Gender versus power as a predictor of negotiation behavior and outcomes.
Negotiation Journal, 10, 117–127. - Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (1981). Sex of researchers and sex-typed communications as determinants of sex differences in influenceability: A meta-analysis of social influence studies. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 1–20.
- Major, B., McFarlin, D. B., & Gagnon, D. (1984). Overworked and underpaid: On the nature of gender differences in personal entitlement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
47, 1399–1412. - Conrath, D. W. (1972). Sex role and “cooperation” in the game of chicken. Journal of Conflict
Resolution, 16, 433–44 - Fisher, R., & Smith, W. P. (1969). Conflict of interest and attraction in the development of cooperation. Psychonomic Science, 14, 154–155.
- Kimmel, M. J., Pruitt, D. G., Magenau, J. M., Konar-Goldband, E. K. (1980). Effects of trust,
aspiration, and gender on negotiation tactics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
38, 9–22. - Tedeschi, J. T., Bonoma, T., & Lindskold, S. (1970). Threateners’ reactions to prior announcement of behavioral compliance or defiance. Behavioral Science, 15, 171–179.
- Scudder, J. N. (1988). The influence of power on powerful speech: A social-exchange perspective.
Communication Research Reports, 5, 140–145. - Maccoby, E. E., & Jacklin C. N. (1974). The psychology of sex differences. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
- Wall, J. A., & Blum, M. W. (1991). Negotiations. Journal of Management, 17, 273–303
- Kahn, A., Hottes, J., & Davis, W. L, (1971). Cooperation and optimal responding in the Prisoner’s Dilemma game: Effects of sex and physical attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 17, 267–269. - Hahn, S., & Litwin, A. H. (1995). Women and men: Understanding and respecting gender differences in the workplace. In R. A. Ritvo, A. H. Litwin, & L. Butler (Eds.) Managing in the age of change. (pp. 188–198.) New York: Irwin.
- Camras, L. A. (1984). Children’s verbal and nonverbal communication in a conflict situation.
Psychology and Sociobiology, 5, 257–268. - Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. F. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom. New York: Holt, Reine-
hart, & Winston. - Rubin, J. Z., & Brown, B. R. (1975). The social psychology of bargaining and negotiation, NewYork: Academic Press.
- Rubin and Brown’s (1975) review suggested that men appear to be more cooperative negotiators than women when the situation is such that individual profit is maximized by cooperation. On the other hand, when the situation calls for competition, men appear to engage in competitive behavior to a greater degree than females.
- Snyder, M., Tanke, E. D., & Berscheid, E. (1977). Social perception and interpersonal behavior:
On the self-fulfilling nature of social stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
35, 656–666. - King, W. C., Miles, E. W., & Kniska, J. (1991). Boys will be boys (and girls will be girls): The
attribution of gender role stereotypes in a gaming situation. Sex Roles, 25, 607–623. - Matheson, K. (1991). Social cues in computer-mediated negotiations: Gender makes a difference.
Computers in Human Behavior, 7, 137–145. - Eagly, A. H., & Johnson, B. T. (1990). Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 233–256.
Tannen (1990, 1994), in particular, has commented extensively on the differences in socialization of males and females with regard to interaction.
Tannen discusses how males are socialized into a one-up, one-down type of conversational style in which each party tries to “win” the discussion through information use, vocal volume, or argument strategy.
Females, on the other hand, are socialized into a more “rapport- talk” type of conversation in which the purpose of a discussion is more to understand others’ perspectives, to share information, and to come to a mutually agreed-on solution than it is to win the conversation.
Tannen (1990) argues that women typically avoid conflict because they view conflict as a threat to intimacy in a relationship. When women are faced with conflict, they may attempt to end the conflict quickly by accommodating to the will of others, thereby preserving the relationship. Men, viewing relationships in terms of hierarchies and dominance patterns, rather prefer conflict because it is the outcome of conflict situations that largely determines one’s status in the world.
Tannen, D. (1990) You just don’t understand: Women and men in conversation. New York: William Morrow, Ballantine.
Tannen, D. (1994) Talking from 9 to 5. New York: William Morrow.
Tannen discusses how males are socialized into a one-up, one-down type of conversational style in which each party tries to “win” the discussion through information use, vocal volume, or argument strategy.
Females, on the other hand, are socialized into a more “rapport- talk” type of conversation in which the purpose of a discussion is more to understand others’ perspectives, to share information, and to come to a mutually agreed-on solution than it is to win the conversation.
Tannen (1990) argues that women typically avoid conflict because they view conflict as a threat to intimacy in a relationship. When women are faced with conflict, they may attempt to end the conflict quickly by accommodating to the will of others, thereby preserving the relationship. Men, viewing relationships in terms of hierarchies and dominance patterns, rather prefer conflict because it is the outcome of conflict situations that largely determines one’s status in the world.
Tannen, D. (1990) You just don’t understand: Women and men in conversation. New York: William Morrow, Ballantine.
Tannen, D. (1994) Talking from 9 to 5. New York: William Morrow.
Labor donation theory, for example, stresses women’s altruism even in paid employment positions arguing that, because nonprofit wages tend to be lower than in business and government, those working in nonprofits make relative “labor donations” in return for “the opportunity to provide goods with positive social externalities” (Preston, 1989, p. 438).
Voluntas
http://www.springer.com/social+sciences/journal/11266
Articles are published in English with abstracts in French, German, Spanish, Japanese, Chinese, and Arabic.
Rated 1 out of 16 in Public and Not-for-Profit Management by the German Association for Business Research.
Rated .031 in the SCImago Journal Rank (SJR), Geography, Planning and Development list (166 out of 424). SJR is a measure of the journal’s relative impact in its field, based on its number of citations and number of articles per publication year. For more information, visit: http://www.scimagojr.com/index.php
Articles are published in English with abstracts in French, German, Spanish, Japanese, Chinese, and Arabic.
Rated 1 out of 16 in Public and Not-for-Profit Management by the German Association for Business Research.
Rated .031 in the SCImago Journal Rank (SJR), Geography, Planning and Development list (166 out of 424). SJR is a measure of the journal’s relative impact in its field, based on its number of citations and number of articles per publication year. For more information, visit: http://www.scimagojr.com/index.php
Andreoni and Vesterlund (2001) offer a hypothesis to help explain these contradictory findings. Based on an experimental study, they show that men are likely to be more generous than women when giving is relatively cheap (i.e., involves less “pain” for the giver), whereas women are more likely to give than men when the price of giving is relatively high.
Thursday, September 22, 2011
Carol Gilligan, a Harvard psychologist, has become widely recognized for her research suggesting that men and women differ in the way they solve moral dilemmas. Gilligan (1982) asserts that men are likely to consider ethical dilemmas in terms of justice, rules, and rights, whereas women tend to consider them in terms of relationships, caring, and compassion.
[Women's] conception of morality as concerned with the activity of care centers moral development around the understanding of responsibilities and relationships, just as [men's] conception of morality as fairness ties moral development to the understanding or rights and rules. (1982, p. 19)
[Women's] conception of morality as concerned with the activity of care centers moral development around the understanding of responsibilities and relationships, just as [men's] conception of morality as fairness ties moral development to the understanding or rights and rules. (1982, p. 19)
Sex Roles
http://www.springer.com/psychology/personality+%26+social+psychology/journal/11199
Total cites within Women's Studies journals: ranked 1st out of 29
Total cites within Social Psychology: ranked 10th out of 78
5 Year Impact Factor: 1.281
Total cites within Women's Studies journals: ranked 1st out of 29
Total cites within Social Psychology: ranked 10th out of 78
5 Year Impact Factor: 1.281
inadequacies inherent in role theory per se-its emphasis on "consensus, stability and continuity" (Stacey and Thorne 1985, p. 307), its ahistorical and depoliticizing focus (Thorne 1980, p. 9; Stacey and Thorne 1985, p. 307), and the fact that its "social" dimension relies on "a general assumption that people choose to maintain existing customs" (Connell 1985, p. 263).
---- West, C., & Don, H. Z. (1987). Doing Gender. Gender and Society, 1(2), 125-151.
---- West, C., & Don, H. Z. (1987). Doing Gender. Gender and Society, 1(2), 125-151.
As Heritage (1984, pp. 136-37) notes, members of society regularly engage in "descriptive accountings of states of affairs to one another," and such accounts are both serious and consequential. These descriptions name, characterize, formulate, explain, excuse, excoriate,
or merely take notice of some circumstance or activity and thus place it within some social framework (locating it relative to other activities, like and unlike).
or merely take notice of some circumstance or activity and thus place it within some social framework (locating it relative to other activities, like and unlike).
the application of membership categories relies on an "if-can" test in everyday interaction (Sacks 1972, pp. 332-35). This test stipulates that if people can be seen as members of relevant categories, then categorize them that way. That is, use the category that seems appropriate, except in the presence of discrepant information or obvious features that would rule out its use.
Kessler, Suzanne J., and Wendy McKenna. 1978. Gender: An Ethnomethodological Approach. New York: Wiley.
Drawing on Garfinkel, Kessler and McKenna argue that "female" and "male" are cultural events-products of what they term the "gender attribution process"-rather than some collection of traits, behaviors, or even physical attributes.
Drawing on Garfinkel, Kessler and McKenna argue that "female" and "male" are cultural events-products of what they term the "gender attribution process"-rather than some collection of traits, behaviors, or even physical attributes.
practical methodologist
Garfinkel's (1967, pp. 118-40) case study of Agnes, a transsexual raised as a boy who adopted a female identity at age 17 and underwent a sex reassignment operation several years later, demonstrates how gender is created through interaction and at the same time structures interaction. Agnes, whom Garfinkel characterized as a "practical methodologist," developed a number of procedures for passing as a "normal, natural female" both prior to and after her surgery.
Garfinkel, Harold. 1967. Studies in Ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Garfinkel, Harold. 1967. Studies in Ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
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